Together with the abundance of calcium in earth crust and its environmental compatibility, these properties appeal CIBs as the next generation post-LIBs. 14.7 for magnesium ion, 16 for zinc ion, and 24 for aluminum ion) 10, suggesting comparatively fast mobility of divalent calcium ions in hypothetical insertion host materials. In addition, calcium ion presents the smallest polarization strength of 10.4 (vs. SHE) for zinc 8, 9, enabling a high energy density with the voltage comparable to that of LIBs. standard hydrogen potential, SHE), which is lower than −2.4 V (vs. Among the multivalent battery systems, calcium ion batteries (CIBs) are capable of offering the highest voltage due to the low reduction potential of Ca/Ca 2+ with −2.9 V (vs. Recently, rechargeable batteries based on magnesium ion 5, aluminum ion 6, zinc ion 7, and calcium ion have thus received much attention and obtained discernible progress in battery performance. Multivalent ion batteries have been considered as one of the alternative solutions, because multivalent ion insertion/extraction is associated with doubled or tripled electron transfer per ion in the intercalation reaction, potentially leading to higher specific energy densities than that the monovalent ions can carry 4. The growing demands for electric vehicles and stationary energy storage systems have motivated exhaustive efforts to explore new types of batteries with a higher energy density, longer life, and lower cost than that offered by the current lithium ion batteries (LIBs) 1, 2, 3.
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